Difference between revisions of "Neuropathology"

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'''Neuropathology''' is the bane of many anatomical pathologists in teaching hospitals... 'cause they have to fill in for the neuropathologist when he or she is on vacation.
[[Image:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG|thumb|right|Gross image showing changes of a [[stroke]]. (WC/Marvin 101)]]
This article is an introduction to '''neuropathology'''. There are separate articles for [[brain tumours]], the [[pituitary gland]], the [[spine]], the [[eye]], [[muscle pathologies]], [[neurohistology]] and [[neuroanatomy]].


This article is an introduction to neuropathology.  There are separate articles for [[brain tumours]], the [[pituitary gland]], the [[spine]], the [[eye]], [[muscle pathologies]], [[neurohistology]] and [[neuroanatomy]].
Neuropathology is the bane of many anatomical pathologists in teaching hospitals... 'cause they have to fill in for the neuropathologist when he or she is on vacation.


==Neuroanatomy==
==Neuroanatomy==
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==Neuroradiology==
==Neuroradiology==
Enhancing vs. non-enhancing:
Key factors to consider in evaluation:
*If it is tumour... enhancing usu. high grade, non-enhancing usu. low grade.
# Location.
# Number of lesions - single versus multiple.
# Cystic versus solid lesion.
# Enhancement.
 
==Lesion location==
In neuroradiology and neuropathology, real estate is crucial. Lesion location can often narrow your differential.
 
Cortical lesions (gray matter):
* [[Oligodendroglioma]].
* [[DNET]].
* [[Ganglioglioma]].
* [[Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma]].
* Extraventricular [[ependymoma]].
 
Cortical-subcortical junction:
* [[brain metastasis|Metastases]].
* Abscesses (hematogenous spread).
 
Subcortical lesions (white matter):
* [[Glioblastoma]].
* Diffuse gliomas.
* Demyelinating plaques.
 
Deep gray matter lesions (e.g. basal ganglia):
* Gliomas.
* [[Hypertensive hemorrhage]]
 
Cerebellar lesions:
* [[Medulloblastoma]].
* [[Pilocytic astrocytoma]].
* [[AT/RT]].
 
Intraventricular lesions:
* [[Ependymoma]].
* [[Subependymoma]].
* [[Pilocytic astrocytoma]].
* [[Central neurocytoma]].
* Rosette forming glioneuronal tumour of the fourth ventricle.
 
Suprasellar (above the pituitary):
* [[Craniopharyngioma]].
* [[Germinoma]].
* [[Pilomyxoid astrocytoma]].
 
==Number of lesions==
If ''single'' lesion = think primary, neoplastic
If ''multiple'' lesions = think metastatic, neoplastic or infectious
'''NB: glioblastoma can be multifocal''' (and the foci can be quite far apart)
 
==Cystic vs. solid lesions==
Some tumours are classically cystic with a small solid component (so-called cyst with a mural nodule) -- e.g. pilocytic astrocytoma, ganglioglioma, hemangioblastoma
 
==Enhancing vs. non-enhancing:==
*In adults, enhancing generally = high grade.
*In pediatrics, it often depends on the pattern.
Two main patterns to be mindful of -- ring enhancing lesions, and cystic lesions with a mural nodule.


===Ring enhancing lesions===
===Ring enhancing lesions===
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*[[Toxoplasmosis]] - most common.<ref>MUN. Feb 3, 2009.</ref>
*[[Toxoplasmosis]] - most common.<ref>MUN. Feb 3, 2009.</ref>


Ring enhancing lesion (DDx) - mnemonic ''MAGICAL DR'':<ref>TN2005 NS7.</ref>
Ring enhancing lesion (DDx) - mnemonic ''MAGICAL DR'':<ref>{{Ref TN2005 |NS7}}</ref>
*Metstasis.
*Metstasis.
*Abscess.
*Abscess.
*Glioblastoma.
*[[Glioblastoma]].
*[[Infarct]].
*[[Infarct]].
*Contusion.
*Contusion.
Line 25: Line 82:
*Demyelination (e.g. [[multiple sclerosis]]).
*Demyelination (e.g. [[multiple sclerosis]]).
*Resolving hematoma.
*Resolving hematoma.
===Cyst with enhancing mural nodule===
*hemangioblastoma (#1 in adults)
*pilocytic astrocytoma (#1 in peds)
*pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
*ganglioglioma


==Grossing==
==Grossing==
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*Pyknosis = nuclear shrinkage + darker staining.  
*Pyknosis = nuclear shrinkage + darker staining.  


Images:
=====Images=====
*[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-1HIE.jpg Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].
<gallery>
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg Anoxic neurons (WC)].
Image:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg | Anoxic neurons (WC)
Image:AcuteStroke_HE400x.jpg | Neurons in an acute stroke. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/images2/2-anoxic.png Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].<ref>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 10 December 2014.</ref>
*[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
*[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>


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*Vitamin deficiency ([[pellagra]]).<ref name=pmid15577526>{{cite journal |author=Piercecchi-Marti MD, Pélissier-Alicot AL, Leonetti G, Tervé JP, Cianfarani F, Pellissier JF |title=Pellagra: a rare disease observed in a victim of mental and physical abuse |journal=Am J Forensic Med Pathol |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=342–4 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15577526 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Vitamin deficiency ([[pellagra]]).<ref name=pmid15577526>{{cite journal |author=Piercecchi-Marti MD, Pélissier-Alicot AL, Leonetti G, Tervé JP, Cianfarani F, Pellissier JF |title=Pellagra: a rare disease observed in a victim of mental and physical abuse |journal=Am J Forensic Med Pathol |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=342–4 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15577526 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


Images:
=====Images=====
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Central_chromatolysis_-_intermed_mag_-_cropped.jpg Central chromatolysis - intermed. mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Central_chromatolysis_-_nf_-_very_high_mag.jpg Central chromatolysis - NF stain - very high mag. (WC)].
Image:Central_chromatolysis_-_intermed_mag_-_cropped.jpg | Central chromatolysis - intermed. mag. (WC)
 
Image:Central_chromatolysis_-_nf_-_very_high_mag.jpg | Central chromatolysis - NF stain - very high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
====Axonal swellings====
====Axonal swellings====
H&E:
H&E:
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**Classically described as "funnel-shaped" in benign astrocytes.<ref>MUN. 15 November 2010.</ref>
**Classically described as "funnel-shaped" in benign astrocytes.<ref>MUN. 15 November 2010.</ref>
*Peripheral nucleus.
*Peripheral nucleus.
*Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reactive_astrocytes_-_lfb_-_high_mag.jpg Reactive astrocytes - high mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
Image:Reactive_astrocytes_-_lfb_-_high_mag.jpg | Reactive astrocytes - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>


Alzheimer type II astrocyte:<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html]. Accessed on: 2 July 2010.</ref>
Alzheimer type II astrocyte:<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html]. Accessed on: 2 July 2010.</ref>
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*Indistinct cytoplasm.
*Indistinct cytoplasm.
*Found in the context of ''hepatic encephalopathy'' in basal ganglia and lower layers of cortex.<ref name=Ref_Klatt202>{{Ref Klatt|202}}</ref>
*Found in the context of ''hepatic encephalopathy'' in basal ganglia and lower layers of cortex.<ref name=Ref_Klatt202>{{Ref Klatt|202}}</ref>
*Images:  
*Images:
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (WC)].
**[http://neuroquiz.com/?page=image&topic=1&qid=2714 Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuroquiz.com)].
**[http://neuroquiz.com/?page=image&topic=1&qid=2714 Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuroquiz.com)].
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter10/images10/10-AlzIIl.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuropathologyweb.org)] .
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter10/images10/10-AlzIIl.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuropathologyweb.org)] .
<gallery>
Image:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag.jpg| Alzheimer type II astrocytes. (WC)
</gallery>


Creutzfeldt cell:<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
Creutzfeldt cell:<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
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Bergmann gliosis (in the cerebellum):<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
Bergmann gliosis (in the cerebellum):<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
*Thin layer of cells (2-3 cells) with open nuclei that are larger than granular cell layer nuclei; seen with Purkinje cell loss.
*Thin layer of cells (2-3 cells) with open nuclei that are larger than granular cell layer nuclei; seen with Purkinje cell loss.
**Images:
 
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bergmann_gliosis_-_intermed_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis - intermed. mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bergmann_gliosis_-_high_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis - high mag. (WC)].
Image:Bergmann_gliosis_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis - intermed. mag. (WC)
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Metastatic_adenocarcinoma_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis due to compression by metastasis - intermed mag. (WC)].
Image:Bergmann_gliosis_-_high_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis - high mag. (WC)
***[http://tpx.sagepub.com/content/35/5/676/F5.expansion.html Bergmann gliosis (sagepub.com)].
Image:Metastatic_adenocarcinoma_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis due to compression by metastasis - intermed mag. (WC)
</gallery>
Image:
*[http://tpx.sagepub.com/content/35/5/676/F5.expansion.html Bergmann gliosis (sagepub.com)].


====Reactive change vs. malignancy====
====Reactive change vs. malignancy====
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====Encephalitis====
====Encephalitis====
see also:
* [[Viruses]]
* [[Microorganisms]]
=====General=====
=====General=====
DDx:
DDx:
*Viral encephalitis.
*Viral encephalitis (Neurotrophic viruses):<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Ludlow | first1 = M. | last2 = Kortekaas | first2 = J. | last3 = Herden | first3 = C. | last4 = Hoffmann | first4 = B. | last5 = Tappe | first5 = D. | last6 = Trebst | first6 = C. | last7 = Griffin | first7 = DE. | last8 = Brindle | first8 = HE. | last9 = Solomon | first9 = T. | title = Neurotropic virus infections as the cause of immediate and delayed neuropathology. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 131 | issue = 2 | pages = 159-84 | month = Feb | year = 2016 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-015-1511-3 | PMID = 26659576 }}</ref>
** Eteroviruses are the most common cause of aseptic meningitis.
***Coxackie Virus.
***Enteric cytopathic human orphan (ECHO) virus.
** Human Herpesviruses (HSV1, HSV2, VZV, CMV, EBV, Roseola)
*** HSV encephalitis has high mortality without acyclovir treatment.
*** Childhood cerebellitis mainly associated with varicella.
*** VZV is the second most common viral meningitis after enterovirus.
** Measles virus(worldwide more than 100.000 deaths annually).
***Is linked to [[acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis]] (ADEM) and Subacute sclerosing encephalitis (SSPE).
** Seasonal influenza A virus (highest patogenic potential: avian influenza H5N1).
** Polio and Non-Polio Enterovirus (mostly children).
***Although massive eradication: Polio still existent in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria.
** Rabies virus
** Tick-borne encephalitis virus (Europe, Siberia, Russian far-east).
** West-Nile virus (US, Southern europe).
** St. Louis encephalitis virus (US).
** Japanese encephalitis virus (South, south-east asia, high disability rate).
** La Crosse virus (esp. children, midwest & eastern US).
** Borna disease virus (VSBV-1).
** Equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, WEEV, CHIKV).
*Paraneoplastic syndromes.
*Paraneoplastic syndromes.
*Autoimmune antibody-mediated limbic encephalitis (NMDAR).
*Purulent bacterial encephalitis
**Streptococcus, [[Actinomyces]] ....
*Septic metastatic encephalitis
**microabscesses, local astrogliosis, two or more granulocytic infiltrates without relation to vessel.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Tauber | first1 = SC. | last2 = Bunkowski | first2 = S. | last3 = Brück | first3 = W. | last4 = Nau | first4 = R. | title = Septic metastatic encephalitis: coexistence of brain damage and repair. | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 37 | issue = 7 | pages = 768-76 | month = Dec | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01196.x | PMID = 21696418 }}</ref>
*Septic embolic encephalitis
**Embolic endocarditis, Stroke-like lesions.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Bitsch | first1 = A. | last2 = Nau | first2 = R. | last3 = Hilgers | first3 = RA. | last4 = Verheggen | first4 = R. | last5 = Werner | first5 = G. | last6 = Prange | first6 = HW. | title = Focal neurologic deficits in infective endocarditis and other septic diseases. | journal = Acta Neurol Scand | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 279-86 | month = Oct | year = 1996 | doi =  | PMID = 8937541 }}</ref>
*Non-purulent bacterial encephalitis
** [[Tuberculosis]]...
=====Gross=====
*Frontal and temporal lobe - most common for HSV encephalitis.<ref>{{Ref APBR|416 Q47}}</ref>


=====Microscopic=====
=====Microscopic=====
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*Parasites, e.g. [[toxoplasma]].
*Parasites, e.g. [[toxoplasma]].
*[[Fungi]], e.g. PASD.
*[[Fungi]], e.g. PASD.
<gallery>
File:CNS_lymphocytic_encephalitis_frozen_section.jpg | Intraoperative appearance of a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:CNS_lymphocytic_encephalitis_FFPE_section.jpg | Perivascular inflammation in a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:HSV_hemorrhagic_encephalitis.jpg | Hemorrhage in HSV encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:HSV_necrotizing_encephalitis.jpg | HSV encephalitis, higher magnification (WC/jensflorian)
File:Cmv_status_verrucosus.jpg | Neonatal brain with migration disturbances due to CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)
File:Cmv_neuronal_inclusions.jpg | Neuronal nuclear inclusions in a neonatal CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)
File:Rabies encephalitis PHIL 3368 lores.jpg | Rabies encephalitis (CDC.gov)
File:Rabies negri bodies brain.jpg | Negri bodies in Purkinje cells (CDC.gov)
</gallery>
====Vasculitis====
DDx Cerebral vasculitis / angiitis:
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]] (SLE)
*[[Rheumatoid arthritis]].
*Medications and drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and heroin).
*Paraneoplastic(lymphomas, leukemia and lung cancer).
*[[Granulomatosis_with_polyangiitis]]
*[[Giant cell arteritis]]
*[[Takayasu's arteritis]]
*[[Polyarteritis nodosa]]
*Beta-amyloid-related angiitis (ABRA)
<gallery>
File:ABRA_HE_40x.jpg | Beta-amyloid related angitis, HE (WC)
File:ABRA_beta-amyloid_40x.jpg |  Beta-amyloid related angiitis, abeta IHC (WC)
File:Giant cell arteritis -- low mag.jpg | Giant cell arteritis, HE (WC)
</gallery>


===Architecture===
===Architecture===
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***Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Images/N1-TU-01-17.gif Medulloblastoma (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17 http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17]. Accessed on: 3 December 2010.</ref>
***Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Images/N1-TU-01-17.gif Medulloblastoma (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17 http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17]. Accessed on: 3 December 2010.</ref>
**PNET (can be thought of as a supratentorial medulloblastoma) .
**PNET (can be thought of as a supratentorial medulloblastoma) .
**Neuroblastoma


*Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette = rosette with empty centre (donut hole).<ref name=pmid16551982/>
*Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette = rosette with empty centre (donut hole).<ref name=pmid16551982/>
**[[Retinoblastoma]]s.
**[[Retinoblastoma]]s.
**Pineoblastomas.
**[[Pineoblastomas]].
**Medulloepitheliomas.
**[[Medulloepithelioma]]s.


*True ependymal rosette = surrounds a space.<ref name=pmid16551982/>
*True ependymal rosette = surrounds a space.<ref name=pmid16551982/>
Line 196: Line 337:
**[[Pineocytoma]].
**[[Pineocytoma]].
**[[Neurocytoma]].
**[[Neurocytoma]].
**[[RGNT]] - Rosette forming glioneuronal tumor of the IVth ventricle.
*Radial (cartwheel) profiles = neoplastic cells anchoring to stromal vessels, shorter processes than in ependymal pseudorosettes
**[[Astroblastoma]].
**[[Glioblastoma]].
*Multilayered rosettes
**[[Ependymomblastoma]]s.
**[[Medulloepithelioma]]s.
*Meningeothelial rosettes
**[[Meningioma]] - a rare pattern.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Liverman | first1 = C. | last2 = Mafra | first2 = M. | last3 = Chuang | first3 = SS. | last4 = Shivane | first4 = A. | last5 = Chakrabarty | first5 = A. | last6 = Highley | first6 = R. | last7 = Hilton | first7 = DA. | last8 = Byrne | first8 = NP. | last9 = Wesseling | first9 = P. | title = A clinicopathologic study of 11 rosette-forming meningiomas: a rare and potentially confusing pattern. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 311-3 | month = Aug | year = 2015 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-015-1456-6 | PMID = 26106026 }}</ref>


====Other====
<gallery>
Image:Neuroblastoma Homer Wright rosettes HE.jpg | Homer-Wright rosettes (WC).
Image:RGNT HE 2.jpg | Neurocytic rosettes (WC).
Image:Ependymoma H&E.jpg | Perivascular pseudorosette (WC).
Image:Ependymoblastoma ETMRjpg.jpg | Multilayered rosettes (WC).
Image:Ependymoblastomatous Rosette.jpg | Ependymoblastous rosettes (WC/Marvin101).
Image:Ependymoma true ependymal rosettes and pseudorosettes.jpg | True ependymal rosettes and pseudorosettes (WC).
Image:Astroblastoma HE Specimen.jpg | Radial (cartwheel) profiles (WC).
</gallery>
 
====Other important histological features====
*Rosenthal fibres = worm-like or corkscrew-like (brightly) eosinophilic bodies; 10-40 micrometers.
*Rosenthal fibres = worm-like or corkscrew-like (brightly) eosinophilic bodies; 10-40 micrometers.
**Key feature: variable thickness; helps separate from RBCs.
**Key feature: variable thickness; helps separate from RBCs.
**Well-seen on trichrome stains.
**Well-seen on trichrome stains.  
**Images: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rosenthal_HE_40x.jpg Rosenthal fibres (WP)], [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosenthal_fibers.jpg Rosenthal fibres - smear (WC/AFIP)].
<gallery>
*Eosinophilic granular bodies = related to Rosenthal fibres; round cytoplasmic hyaline droplets in astrocytes.<ref>{{Ref MBNP|11}}</ref>
Image:Rosenthal_HE_40x.jpg | Rosenthal fibres. (WP)
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pilocytic_Micro.jpg EGBs (WC/AFIP)].
Image:Rosenthal_fibers.jpg | Rosenthal fibres - smear (WC/AFIP)
</gallery>
*Eosinophilic granular bodies = related to Rosenthal fibres; round cytoplasmic hyaline droplets in [[astrocyte]]s.<ref>{{Ref MBNP|11}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Pilocytic Micro.jpg | Eosinophilic granular bodies in pilocytic astrocytoma smear (WC/AFIP)
File:PXA HE x20.jpg | Eosinophilic granular body in a pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>
 
*Pseudopalisading - picket fence-like alignment of cells; long axis of cells perpendicular to interface with other structures/cells.
*Pseudopalisading - picket fence-like alignment of cells; long axis of cells perpendicular to interface with other structures/cells.
**Pseudopalisading of tumour cells (around necrotic regions) is seen in glioblastoma.  
**Pseudopalisading of tumour cells (around necrotic regions) is seen in [[glioblastoma]].  
<gallery>
File:GBM pseudopalisading necrosis.jpg | Pseudopalisading necrosis in a glioblastoma (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>
 
*Perivascular lymphocytic cuffing - Lymphocytes surrounding vessels.
** Seen in many inflammatory conditions including MS.
** Often seen in [[ganglioglioma]] and [[pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma]].
** Less common in some gemistocytic [[astrocytoma]].
*** No association with survival. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Rossi | first1 = ML. | last2 = Jones | first2 = NR. | last3 = Candy | first3 = E. | last4 = Nicoll | first4 = JA. | last5 = Compton | first5 = JS. | last6 = Hughes | first6 = JT. | last7 = Esiri | first7 = MM. | last8 = Moss | first8 = TH. | last9 = Cruz-Sanchez | first9 = FF. | title = The mononuclear cell infiltrate compared with survival in high-grade astrocytomas. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 189-93 | month =  | year = 1989 | doi =  | PMID = 2750489 }}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Ganglioglioma lymphocytic cuffing PAS.jpg | Lymphocytic cuffing in [[ganglioglioma]] (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>


Note:  
Note:  
Line 213: Line 395:
*Negri bodies.
*Negri bodies.
**Cytoplasmic inclusions; classically in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn.
**Cytoplasmic inclusions; classically in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn.
**Rabies.
**[[Rabies]].  
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg Negri bodies (WC/CDC)].
<gallery>
Image:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg | Negri bodies. (WC/CDC)
</gallery>
*Owl eye inclusions.
**Basiopilic neuronal inclusions in enlarged cells, typically seen in CMV encephalitis
<gallery>
Image:CMV encephalitis owl eye inclusions HE stain.jpg | Owl eye inclusions
</gallery>


*Lewy bodies.
*Lewy bodies.
**Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion - composed mostly of alpha-synuclein.<ref name=pmid15235805>{{cite journal |author=Marui W, Iseki E, Kato M, Akatsu H, Kosaka K |title=Pathological entity of dementia with Lewy bodies and its differentiation from Alzheimer's disease |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=121–8 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15235805 |doi=10.1007/s00401-004-0869-4 |url=}}</ref>
**Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion - composed mostly of alpha-synuclein.<ref name=pmid15235805>{{cite journal |author=Marui W, Iseki E, Kato M, Akatsu H, Kosaka K |title=Pathological entity of dementia with Lewy bodies and its differentiation from Alzheimer's disease |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=121–8 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15235805 |doi=10.1007/s00401-004-0869-4 |url=}}</ref>
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG Lewy body (WC)].
<gallery>
 
Image:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG | Lewy body. (WC)
</gallery>
====Table of inclusions====
====Table of inclusions====
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable sortable"  
| Feature  
! Feature  
| Appearance
! Appearance
| Associated disease
! Associated disease
| Comment
! Comment
| Image
! Image
|-
|-
| Grumous bodies<br>[[AKA]] granular bodies
| Grumose bodies<br>[[AKA]] granular bodies
| granular and eosinophilic ~50 micrometers
| granular and eosinophilic ~50 micrometers
| neurodegenerative disease, neuroaxonal dystrophies, aging
| neurodegenerative disease, neuroaxonal dystrophies, aging
Line 244: Line 434:
| [[Parkinson disease]], dementia with Lewy bodies
| [[Parkinson disease]], dementia with Lewy bodies
| morphology dependent on <br>location in brain; +ve for alpha-synuclein, <br>alpha-B crystallin, ubiquitin
| morphology dependent on <br>location in brain; +ve for alpha-synuclein, <br>alpha-B crystallin, ubiquitin
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG], [http://firstaidteam.com/usmlerximages/v/USMLERxLewy+bodies.gif.html]
| [[Image:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG |thumb|center|150px|]], [http://firstaidteam.com/usmlerximages/v/USMLERxLewy+bodies.gif.html]
|-  
|-  
| Lafora body
| Lafora body
Line 262: Line 452:
| rabies
| rabies
| found in hippocampal neurons and Purkinje cells
| found in hippocampal neurons and Purkinje cells
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg]
| [[Image:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg|thumb|center|150px|]]
|-  
|-  
| Hirano body
| Hirano body
Line 316: Line 506:
Standard work-up:
Standard work-up:
*GFAP.
*GFAP.
*p53.
*MAP2C. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Blümcke | first1 = I. | last2 = Müller | first2 = S. | last3 = Buslei | first3 = R. | last4 = Riederer | first4 = BM. | last5 = Wiestler | first5 = OD. | title = Microtubule-associated protein-2 immunoreactivity: a useful tool in the differential diagnosis of low-grade neuroepithelial tumors. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 89-96 | month = Aug | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-004-0873-8 | PMID = 15146346 }}</ref>
*Ki-67.
*Ki-67 (MIB-1).
 
Useful additional markers:
*IDH1(R132H) in Astrocytic/Oligodendroglial tumors. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Paulus | first1 = W. | title = GFAP, Ki67 and IDH1: perhaps the golden triad of glioma immunohistochemistry. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 118 | issue = 5 | pages = 603-4 | month = Nov | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-009-0600-6 | PMID = 19847448 }}</ref>
*ATRX in mixed gliomas. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Reuss | first1 = DE. | last2 = Sahm | first2 = F. | last3 = Schrimpf | first3 = D. | last4 = Wiestler | first4 = B. | last5 = Capper | first5 = D. | last6 = Koelsche | first6 = C. | last7 = Schweizer | first7 = L. | last8 = Korshunov | first8 = A. | last9 = Jones | first9 = DT. | title = ATRX and IDH1-R132H immunohistochemistry with subsequent copy number analysis and IDH sequencing as a basis for an "integrated" diagnostic approach for adult astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma and glioblastoma. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 129 | issue = 1 | pages = 133-46 | month = Jan | year = 2015 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-014-1370-3 | PMID = 25427834 }}</ref>
*EMA in Ependymal tumors. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hasselblatt | first1 = M. | last2 = Paulus | first2 = W. | title = Sensitivity and specificity of epithelial membrane antigen staining patterns in ependymomas. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 106 | issue = 4 | pages = 385-8 | month = Oct | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-003-0752-8 | PMID = 12898159 }}</ref>
*OLIG-2 usually -ve in Ependymomas. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Ishizawa | first1 = K. | last2 = Komori | first2 = T. | last3 = Shimada | first3 = S. | last4 = Hirose | first4 = T. | title = Olig2 and CD99 are useful negative markers for the diagnosis of brain tumors. | journal = Clin Neuropathol | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 118-28 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 18552083 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Otero | first1 = JJ. | last2 = Rowitch | first2 = D. | last3 = Vandenberg | first3 = S. | title = OLIG2 is differentially expressed in pediatric astrocytic and in ependymal neoplasms. | journal = J Neurooncol | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 423-38 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1007/s11060-010-0509-x | PMID = 21193945 }}</ref>
===Neuronal===
===Neuronal===
*Synaptophysin.
*Synaptophysin.
Line 332: Line 526:
=Brain tumours=
=Brain tumours=
{{main|Neuropathology tumours}}
{{main|Neuropathology tumours}}
Tumours are a big part of neuropathology.  The most common brain tumour is a metastasis.  The most common primary tumour (in adults) is glioblastoma which has a horrible prognosis.
Tumours are a big part of neuropathology.  The most common brain tumour (in adults) is a metastasis.  The most common primary tumours originating in the brain (in adults) are [[glioma]]s. More than 50% of these are classified as [[glioblastoma]] which has a horrible prognosis.


=Non-tumour=
=Non-tumour=
==Cerebral hemorrhage==
==Vascular disorders==
===Cerebral hemorrhage===
:See: ''[[Intracranial hematoma]]'' for intracranial bleeds
:See: ''[[Intracranial hematoma]]'' for intracranial bleeds


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*[[Intracerebral hematoma]]s.
*[[Intracerebral hematoma]]s.


==Duret hematoma==
===Duret hematoma===
*[[AKA]] Duret hemorrhage.
*[[AKA]] Duret hemorrhage.
===General===
====General====
*Bleed in the upper brainstem (midbrain and pons).
*Bleed in the upper brainstem (midbrain and pons).
**Thought to be due to transtentorial herniation secondary to supratentorial mass effect (e.g. supratentorial tumour, [[intracranial hemorrhage]]).<ref name=pmid11819006>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Parizel | first1 = PM. | last2 = Makkat | first2 = S. | last3 = Jorens | first3 = PG. | last4 = Ozsarlak | first4 = O. | last5 = Cras | first5 = P. | last6 = Van Goethem | first6 = JW. | last7 = van den Hauwe | first7 = L. | last8 = Verlooy | first8 = J. | last9 = De Schepper | first9 = AM. | title = Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). | journal = Intensive Care Med | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 85-8 | month = Jan | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s00134-001-1160-y | PMID = 11819006 }}</ref>
**Thought to be due to transtentorial herniation secondary to supratentorial mass effect (e.g. supratentorial tumour, [[intracranial hemorrhage]]).<ref name=pmid11819006>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Parizel | first1 = PM. | last2 = Makkat | first2 = S. | last3 = Jorens | first3 = PG. | last4 = Ozsarlak | first4 = O. | last5 = Cras | first5 = P. | last6 = Van Goethem | first6 = JW. | last7 = van den Hauwe | first7 = L. | last8 = Verlooy | first8 = J. | last9 = De Schepper | first9 = AM. | title = Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). | journal = Intensive Care Med | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 85-8 | month = Jan | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s00134-001-1160-y | PMID = 11819006 }}</ref>
*Often fatal.<ref name=pmid11098635>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fujimoto | first1 = Y. | last2 = Aguiar | first2 = PH. | last3 = Freitas | first3 = AB. | last4 = de Andrade | first4 = AF. | last5 = Marino Júnior | first5 = R. | title = Recovery from Duret hemorrhage: a rare complication after craniotomy--case report. | journal = Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 508-10 | month = Oct | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 11098635 }}</ref>
*Often fatal.<ref name=pmid11098635>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fujimoto | first1 = Y. | last2 = Aguiar | first2 = PH. | last3 = Freitas | first3 = AB. | last4 = de Andrade | first4 = AF. | last5 = Marino Júnior | first5 = R. | title = Recovery from Duret hemorrhage: a rare complication after craniotomy--case report. | journal = Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 508-10 | month = Oct | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 11098635 }}</ref>
===Gross===
====Gross====
*Extravasated blood in midbrain and pons - usu. ventral (anterior) and paramedian (adjacent to the midline).<ref name=pmid11819006/>
*Extravasated blood in midbrain and pons - usu. ventral (anterior) and paramedian (adjacent to the midline).<ref name=pmid11819006/>


Line 356: Line 551:
*[http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg5/CNS037.jpg Duret hemorrhage (med.utah.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html]. Accessed on: 4 December 2011.</ref>
*[http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg5/CNS037.jpg Duret hemorrhage (med.utah.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html]. Accessed on: 4 December 2011.</ref>


===Microscopic===
====Microscopic====
Features:
Features:
*RBC extravasation.  
*RBC extravasation.  
*+/-Hemosiderin-laden macrophages.
*+/-Hemosiderin-laden macrophages.
*+/-Ischemic neurons.
*+/-Ischemic neurons.
===Cerebral amyloid angiopathy===
====General====
*Abbreviated ''CAA''.
*Disease of the old.
*Strong association with ''[[lobar haemorrhage]]'' (bleeds of the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).<ref name=pmid16982664>{{cite journal |author=Thanvi B, Robinson T |title=Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy--an important cause of cerebral haemorrhage in older people |journal=Age Ageing |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=565–71 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16982664 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afl108 |url=}}</ref>
Etiology:
*[[Amyloid]] deposition in the basal lamina of smooth muscle (in the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).
====Gross====
*Bleeds typically superficial (cortex and subcortical white matter) and in the frontal lobe or parietal lobe.<ref name=pmid17297004>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Haacke | first1 = EM. | last2 = DelProposto | first2 = ZS. | last3 = Chaturvedi | first3 = S. | last4 = Sehgal | first4 = V. | last5 = Tenzer | first5 = M. | last6 = Neelavalli | first6 = J. | last7 = Kido | first7 = D. | title = Imaging cerebral amyloid angiopathy with susceptibility-weighted imaging. | journal = AJNR Am J Neuroradiol | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 316-7 | month = Feb | year = 2007 | doi =  | PMID = 17297004 | URL = http://www.ajnr.org/content/28/2/316.long }}</ref>
====Microscopic====
Features:
*Amorphous, acellular eosinophilic material within walls of small arteries.
**This is a high power diagnosis with congo red staining.
Notes:
*Amyloidosis is seen in all individuals with [[Alzheimer's disease]]; the amount of amyloid is what differs -- in CAA it is lots and lots.
*The white matter is typically spared by CAA.<ref name=pmid19225408>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Schröder | first1 = R. | last2 = Deckert | first2 = M. | last3 = Linke | first3 = RP. | title = Novel isolated cerebral ALlambda amyloid angiopathy with widespread subcortical distribution and leukoencephalopathy due to atypical monoclonal plasma cell proliferation, and terminal systemic gammopathy. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 286-99 | month = Mar | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31819a87f9 | PMID = 19225408 }}
</ref>
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_very_high_mag.jpg |CAA - congo red - very high mag. (WC)
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_low_mag.jpg |CAA - congo red - low mag. (WC)
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-2b-_amyloid_beta_-_high_mag.jpg |CAA - beta-amyloid - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
====Stains====
*[[Congo red]].
====IHC====
*Abeta-amyloid (AKA beta-amyloid).
===Cerebral amyloid angiopathy associated with inflammation (I-CAA)===
* Cognitive decline.
* Microbleedings in MRI.
* Responsive to steroids.
* Abeta deposits in vessels.
* Perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate (but no vasculitis!).
* Giant cells may be present.
===Vascular malformations===
{{Main|Vascular malformations}}
Types:<ref name=pmid17076525>{{cite journal |author=Prayson RA, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part II |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1639–48 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Vascular_malformations#Arteriovenous_malformation|Arteriovenous malformation]].
*Varix.
*Venous angioma.
*[[Vascular_malformations#Cavernous_hemangioma|Cavernous hemangioma]]  (Cavernoma).
*Capillary teleangiectasia.
Also see: ''[[Sturge-Weber syndrome]]''.
===Atherosclerosis===
{{Main|Vascular_disease#Atherosclerosis}}
*Intracranial atherosclerosis most common at circle of Willis.
*Macroscopic yellow discoloration.
*Luminal stenosis and eccentric intimal thickening.
<gallery>
File:Carotid Plaque (121061911).jpg|Plaque of the carotid bifurcation (Ed Uthman).
</gallery>
===Other large arterial diseases===
*[[Vascular_disease#Fibromuscular_dysplasia|Fibromuscular dysplasia]].
*Moyamoya disease.
**Progressive stenosis of basal intracranial arteries and abnormal vascularization.
*[[Aortic dissection|Arterial dissection]].
*[[Giant cell arteritis]].
*[[Takayasu's arteritis]].
*[[Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome|Antiphospholipid antibody]] mediated thrombosis.
===Microangiopathy===
*Defined as Small vessel disease (<300µm in transverse section).
*Includes atherosclerosis and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
Other causes:
*Primary angitis of the CNS (PACNS).
*[[Polyarteritis nodosa]].
*[[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis]] (Wegener's granulomatosis).
*[[Lymphomatoid granulomatosis]].
*Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (commonly abbreviated ''CADASIL'').
{{Main|Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy}}
===Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy===
*Abbreviated ''HIE''.
{{Main|Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy}}
**Hypoxia: reduction in oxygen supply or utilization.
**Ischemia: reduction in blood supply.
===Cerebrovascular accident===
*Abbreviated ''CVA''.
*[[AKA]] ''stroke''.
{{Main|Cerebrovascular accident}}
*Stroke includes:
**Infarction (ischemia in defined vascular distribution persisting for at least 24hrs).
**Intracrebral hemorrhage (focal blood accumulation in the brain parenchyma).
**Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH).
**Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT).


==Alcohol & CNS==
==Alcohol & CNS==
Line 389: Line 682:
General:
General:
*Due to thiamine deficiency.
*Due to thiamine deficiency.
**Malnourishment often accompanies [[alcoholism]].


Features:
Features:<ref name=pmid3929155>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Torvik | first1 = A. | title = Two types of brain lesions in Wernicke's encephalopathy. | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 179-90 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 3929155 }}</ref>
*Neurons preserved - '''key'''.
*Neurons of mammillary bodies preserved - '''key'''.
*Loss of myelin.
*Loss of myelin.
*Hemorrhage.
*Hemorrhage.
*Spongiosis.
*Edema.
*Reactive blood vessels.
*Reactive blood vessels.


Note:
*The thalamus and inferior olives show neuronal loss.<ref name=pmid3929155/>


====Common non-specific findings====
====Common non-specific findings====
Line 411: Line 707:
*+/-Decreased level of consciousness.
*+/-Decreased level of consciousness.


Etiology:
CSF findings:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Type
! Glucose
! Protein
! Cells
! Cytopathology
|-
| Bacterial, acute
| low
| high
| neutrophils
| [[File:Purulent_CSF.jpg|100px|center|]][[CSF_cytopathology#Acute_bacterial_meningitis|Cytophathology]]
|-
| Viral
| normal
| slight elevation
| lymphocytes
| [[CSF_cytopathology#Viral_meningitis|Cytophathology]]
|}
 
 
 
====Etiology====
*Infectious.
*Infectious.
**Bacterial.
**Bacterial.
Line 419: Line 738:
*Toxic.
*Toxic.
*Aseptic - see ''[[Mollaret's meningitis]]''.
*Aseptic - see ''[[Mollaret's meningitis]]''.
Bacterial meningitis - most probably cause by age:<ref>{{Ref PCPBoD8|666-7}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Age
! Organism
|-
| Neonate
| ''Escherichia coli'', ''Group B Streptococcus''
|-
| Infants, children
| ''Streptococcus pneumoniae''
|-
| Adolescents, young adults
| ''Neisseria meningitidis''
|-
| Elderly
| ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Listeria monocytogenes''
|}


===Gross===
===Gross===
Line 427: Line 764:
*+/-Cerebral edema.
*+/-Cerebral edema.


Image:
====Image====
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis,_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg Meningitis (WP)].
<gallery>
Image:Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis,_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg | Streptococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr.)
File:Haemophilus influenzae meningitis 5003 lores.jpg | Hemophilus influenza Meningitis. (WC/CDC)
File:Pneumococcal meningitis.jpg | Pneumococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Yale Rosen)
File:Meningitis-MRI.JPG | Bacterial Meningitis MRI (WC/MBq)
</gallery>


===Microscopic===
===Microscopic===
Features:
Features:
*Inflammation of the meninges.
*Inflammation of the meninges:
*Infectious meningitis:
**+/-[[Neutrophil]]s.
**Microorganisms (bacteria, [[fungi]]).
**+/-Lymphocytes.
**+/-[[Plasma cell]]s.
*+/-Microorganisms (infectious meningitis):  
**Bacteria.
**[[Fungi]], e.g. [[aspergillosis]] (may be intravascular).
 
Main DDx:
*[[Lymphoma]].
 
====Image====
<gallery>
Image:Meningitis_Histopathology.jpg | Bacterial meningitis. (WC/Marvin101)
</gallery>


==Cerebral abscess==
==Cerebral abscess==
Line 451: Line 805:
==Neurodegenerative diseases==
==Neurodegenerative diseases==
{{Main|Neurodegenerative diseases}}
{{Main|Neurodegenerative diseases}}
This is a hueueuge topic.  It is covered its own article and includes a general discussion of dementia.
This is a hueueuge topic.  It is covered in its own article and includes a general discussion of dementia.
 
==Malformation of cortical development(MCD) ==
===Lissencephaly===
* Greek: ‘lissos': smooth and ‘enkephalos': brain.
* Absent (agyria) or decreased (pachygyria) convolutions.
* Cortical thickening
* Smooth cerebral surface
* Subtypes with different layering: 2-layered, 3-layered, and 4-layered forms.
* Heterotopic neurons in a pattern suggestive of laminar organization.
* 14 LIS mutations account for 90% of all cases.<ref name="pmid27781032">{{cite journal |authors=Parrini E, Conti V, Dobyns WB, Guerrini R |title=Genetic Basis of Brain Malformations |journal=Mol Syndromol |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=220–233 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27781032 |pmc=5073505 |doi=10.1159/000448639 |url=}}</ref>
 
===Polymicrogyria===
* Abnormal cortical lamination.
* Abnormally small and partly fused gyri.
* Can be unilateral, bilateral and symmetrical.
* Intellectual disability.
* Sometimes severe encephalopathy.
* Pharmacoresistant epilepsy
* Cortical lamination can be unlayered or four-layered.
** Unlayered:  Unorganized radial distribution of neurons.
** Four-layered:  Molecular layer, outer neuronal layer, nerve fiber layer, and inner neuronal layer.
* 1q trisomy in unilateral cases.<ref name="pmid32979071">{{cite journal |authors=Kobow K, Jabari S, Pieper T, Kudernatsch M, Polster T, Woermann FG, Kalbhenn T, Hamer H, Rössler K, Mühlebner A, Spliet WGM, Feucht M, Hou Y, Stichel D, Korshunov A, Sahm F, Coras R, Blümcke I, von Deimling A |title=Mosaic trisomy of chromosome 1q in human brain tissue associates with unilateral polymicrogyria, very early-onset focal epilepsy, and severe developmental delay |journal=Acta Neuropathol |volume=140 |issue=6 |pages=881–891 |date=December 2020 |pmid=32979071 |doi=10.1007/s00401-020-02228-5 |url=}}</ref>


==Epilepsy==
==Epilepsy==
{{Main|Epilepsy}}
{{Main|Epilepsy}}  
===Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)===
*Localized malformations of the cortex.
*Frequently associated with epilepsy in children.
*Includes cortical dyslamination, cytoarchitectural changes and white matter abnormalities.
*Current consensus: ILAE classification scheme 2011 <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Blümcke | first1 = I. | last2 = Aronica | first2 = E. | last3 = Miyata | first3 = H. | last4 = Sarnat | first4 = HB. | last5 = Thom | first5 = M. | last6 = Roessler | first6 = K. | last7 = Rydenhag | first7 = B. | last8 = Jehi | first8 = L. | last9 = Krsek | first9 = P. | title = International recommendation for a comprehensive neuropathologic workup of epilepsy surgery brain tissue: A consensus Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. | journal = Epilepsia | volume = 57 | issue = 3 | pages = 348-58 | month = Mar | year = 2016 | doi = 10.1111/epi.13319 | PMID = 26839983 }}
</ref>(based on previous classification by Palmini 2004):


==Cerebrovascular accident==
*Abbreviated ''CVA''.
*[[AKA]] ''stroke''.


===General===
*Type I FCD (focal)
*Very common.
**Ia: Abnormal radial cortical lamination.
*Leading cause of morbidity and mortality.
**Ib: Abnormal tangential cortical lamination.
**Ic: Abnormal radial and tangential cortical lamination.


Clinical classification:
# Hemorrhagic stroke.
# Ischemic stroke.


===Gross===
*Type II FCD (focal)
*Soft/mushy brain.
**IIa: Presence of dysmorphic neurons.
*Older infarcts.
**IIb: Presence of dysmorphic neurons and balloon cells.
**A "roof" is present - a thin submeningeal layer is preserved by the CSF.<ref>MUN. 16 December 2009.</ref>
***"Roof" is absent in trauma.
**Cavity - in older infarcts.
***''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'' does not cavitate.
*Laminar necrosis = (thin) chalky line replaces grey mater.<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/jty1/neurotest/Q03-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/jty1/neurotest/Q03-Ans.htm]. Accessed on: 26 October 2010.</ref>
**[[AKA]] ''pseudolaminar necrosis'' - as it is not localized to a specific layer of the cortex.<ref>MUN. 26 November 2010.</ref>


DDx:
*[[Cerebral contusion]].


===Microscopic===
*Type III FCD (associated with other lesion)
Features:
**IIIa: FCD associated with [[Epilepsy#Hippocampal_sclerosis|hippocampal sclerosis]].
*Ischemic neurons.
**IIIb: FCD adjacent to a brain tumor.
*+/-Neuronal loss.
**IIIc: FCD adjacent to vascular malformation.
*+/-Microglial.
**IIIc: FCD associated with previous injury (trauma, inflammation...).
*+/-[[Thrombosis]].
*+/-[[Atherosclerosis]].


==Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy==
*Abbreviated ''HIE''.
===General===
*Often due to ''cardiac arrest'', i.e. global ischemia.
*Triple watershed area = parieto-occipital cortex, extrastriate occipital cortex.


Note:
<gallery>
*''Hypoxia'' = blood decreased oxygen carrying capacity,<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_10>{{Ref PCPBoD8|10}}</ref> e.g. [[anemia]].
File:FCDIIa dysmorphic neurons HE.jpg|Dysmorphic neurons in FCD (HE)
*''Ischemia'' = decreased blood flow.<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_10>{{Ref PCPBoD8|10}}</ref>
File:FCDIIa neuronal heterotopia neun.jpg|Heterotopic neurons (NeuN)
*Either ''or'' both = less oxygen delivery to tissue.
</gallery>
===Microscopic===
Features:
*Hippocampal ischemic changes (in adults):
**Loss of neurons in CA1, CA3 and CA4 +/- "cavitation".
***Neuronal loss: No blue (nuclei) where there should be some.
***Cavitation: bubbles/clear spaces where there should be none.
**CA2 neurons preserved/resistant.
*Purkinje cell loss in the cerebellum and [[Bergmann gliosis]].
*"Anoxic neurons".<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
**Shrunken neurons with intensely eosinophilic cytoplasm and pyknotic (shrunken) nuclei.
*Pseudolaminar necrosis - (uncontrolled) cell death in the cerebral cortex in a band-like pattern,<ref>Hypoxic and Ischemic Encephalopathy. neuropathology.neoucom.edu. Accessed on: 29 December 2010.</ref> with a relative preservation of cells immediately adjacent to the meninges.


Images:
===Hamartia===
*Anoxic neurons:
* Small collection of ectopic glioneuronal cells.
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-1HIE.jpg Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].
**Morpholology resembling oligodendroglial-like cells. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kasper | first1 = BS. | last2 = Stefan | first2 = H. | last3 = Buchfelder | first3 = M. | last4 = Paulus | first4 = W. | title = Temporal lobe microdysgenesis in epilepsy versus control brains. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 58 | issue = 1 | pages = 22-8 | month = Jan | year = 1999 | doi =  | PMID = 10068310 }}</ref>
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg Anoxic neurons (WC)].
* Mostly amygdala, less common in hippocampus or temporal lobe.
**[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
* Can coexist with focal cortical dysplasia.
*Hippocampal ischemic changes:
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-hippoHIE.jpg Hippocampus in HIE (neuropathologyweb.org)].<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 14 January 2011.</ref>
*Pseudolaminar necrosis:
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cortical_pseudolaminar_necrosis_-_lfb_-_very_low_mag.jpg Pseudolaminar necrosis - very low mag. (WC)].
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cortical_pseudolaminar_necrosis_-_lfb_-_intermed_mag.jpg Pseudolaminar necrosis - intermed. mag. (WC)].


Notes:
==Demyelination==
*Neurons of ''subiculum'' in adults - usu. normal (as they are resistant to ischemic changes).


==Multiple sclerosis==
===Multiple sclerosis===
*Abbreviated ''MS''.
*Abbreviated ''MS''.
===General===
{{Main|Multiple sclerosis}}
*A bread 'n butter disease of neurology in Canada.


Clinical:
===Osmotic demyelination syndrome===
*CSF: oligoclonal bands of immunoglobulin.<ref>{{Ref PBoD8|1311}}</ref>
{{Main|Osmotic demyelination syndrome}}
*Previously known as ''central pontine myelinolysis'' (abbreviated ''CPM'').


===Radiologic/Gross===
===Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis===
Features:<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
*Abbreviated ''ADEM''.
*White matter lesions.
{{Main|Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis}}
**Cerebrum (classically): periventricular distribution.
**Optic nerves (optic neuritis) - classic presentation.


===Microscopic===
===Neuromyelitis optica===
Features:<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
*Abbreviated ''NMO''.
*Perivascular inflammation.
*Demyelination.
**Subcortical myelinated fibers are often spared.


Classification of MS lesions:
General:
*Early active.
*Rare autoimmune disease - once considered a variant of [[multiple sclerosis]].
*Inactive.  
**Autoantibodies directed at aquaporin-4.<ref name=pmid22087205>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kim | first1 = W. | last2 = Kim | first2 = SH. | last3 = Kim | first3 = HJ. | title = New insights into neuromyelitis optica. | journal = J Clin Neurol | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 115-27 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.3988/jcn.2011.7.3.115 | PMID = 22087205 }}</ref>
*Early remyelinating.  
*Late remyelinating.


DDx:
Diagnosis:
*[[ADEM]].
*NMO-IgG.
*[[Neuromyelitis optica]].
*[[Lymphoma]].
*[[Diffuse astrocytoma]].


Images:
Clinical - preferentially:
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case79.html Multiple sclerosis masquerading as a diffuse astrocytoma - several images (upmc.edu)].
*Eye (optic neuritis).
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case636.html Tumefactive multiple sclerosis - several images (upmc.edu)].
*Spinal cord (myelitis).


===IHC===
Microscopic:
*HAM-56 - macrophages.
*Inflammation - lymphocytes, macrophages.
*CD8 - lymphocytes.
*Reactive astrocytes.
 
==Cerebral amyloid angiopathy==
===General===
*Abbreviated ''CAA''.
*Disease of the old.
*Strong association with ''[[lobar haemorrhage]]'' (bleeds of the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).<ref name=pmid16982664>{{cite journal |author=Thanvi B, Robinson T |title=Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy--an important cause of cerebral haemorrhage in older people |journal=Age Ageing |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=565–71 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16982664 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afl108 |url=}}</ref>
**Bleeds typically superficial (cortex and subcortical white matter) and in the frontal lobe or parietal lobe.<ref name=pmid17297004>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Haacke | first1 = EM. | last2 = DelProposto | first2 = ZS. | last3 = Chaturvedi | first3 = S. | last4 = Sehgal | first4 = V. | last5 = Tenzer | first5 = M. | last6 = Neelavalli | first6 = J. | last7 = Kido | first7 = D. | title = Imaging cerebral amyloid angiopathy with susceptibility-weighted imaging. | journal = AJNR Am J Neuroradiol | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 316-7 | month = Feb | year = 2007 | doi =  | PMID = 17297004 | URL = http://www.ajnr.org/content/28/2/316.long }}</ref>
 
Etiology:
*[[Amyloid]] deposition in the basal lamina of smooth muscle (in the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).
 
===Microscopic===
Features:
*Amorphous, acellular eosinophilic material within walls of small arteries.
**This is a high power diagnosis with congo red staining.
 
Notes:
*Amyloidosis is seen in all individuals with [[Alzheimer's disease]]; the amount of amyloid is what differs -- in CAA it is lots and lots.
*The white matter is typically spared by CAA.<ref name=pmid19225408>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Schröder | first1 = R. | last2 = Deckert | first2 = M. | last3 = Linke | first3 = RP. | title = Novel isolated cerebral ALlambda amyloid angiopathy with widespread subcortical distribution and leukoencephalopathy due to atypical monoclonal plasma cell proliferation, and terminal systemic gammopathy. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 286-99 | month = Mar | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31819a87f9 | PMID = 19225408 }}
</ref>


Images:
Images:
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_very_high_mag.jpg CAA - congo red - very high mag. (WC)].
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case637.html Neuromyelitis optica - several images (upmc.edu)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_low_mag.jpg CAA - congo red - low mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-2b-_amyloid_beta_-_high_mag.jpg CAA - beta-amyloid - high mag. (WC)].


===Stains===
IHC:
*[[Congo red]].
*Mixed lymphocyte population with CD3 > CD20.
*Aquaporin-4 loss.


===IHC===
===Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy===
*Abeta-amyloid (AKA beta-amyloid).
*Abbreviated ''PML''.
 
{{Main|Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy}}
==Central pontine myelinolysis==
*Abbreviated ''CPM''.
*[[AKA]] ''pontine myelinolysis''.
===General===
*Classically in the pons, ergo "pontine" is in the name.
*Classically midline, ergo "central" is in the name.
**May occur elsewhere -- known as ''extrapontine myelinolysis''.
 
Etiology:
*Rapid correction of hyponatremia.<ref name=pmid22080394>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Chang | first1 = Y. | last2 = An | first2 = DH. | last3 = Xing | first3 = Y. | last4 = Qi | first4 = X. | title = Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis associated with acute hepatic dysfunction. | journal = Neurol Sci | volume =  | issue =  | pages =  | month = Nov | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1007/s10072-011-0838-3 | PMID = 22080394 }}</ref>
*Tacrolimus post-liver transplant.<ref name=pmid21959523>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fukazawa | first1 = K. | last2 = Nishida | first2 = S. | last3 = Aguina | first3 = L. | last4 = Pretto | first4 = E. | title = Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) associated with tacrolimus (FK506) after liver transplantation. | journal = Ann Transplant | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 139-42 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi =  | PMID = 21959523 }}</ref>
*Associated with alcoholism and malnourishment.
 
Clinical:<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Lai | first1 = CC. | last2 = Tan | first2 = CK. | last3 = Lin | first3 = SH. | last4 = Chen | first4 = HW. | title = Central pontine myelinolysis. | journal = CMAJ | volume = 183 | issue = 9 | pages = E605 | month = Jun | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.090186 | PMID = 21543311 | PMC = 3114939 | URL = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114939/?tool=pubmed }}</ref>
*Decreased level of consciousness - most common.
*Quadriplegia.
*Poor prognosis.
 
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref name=npw_ch6>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html]. Accessed on: 20 December 2011.</ref>
*Myelin loss.
*No inflammation.
*Relative preservation of neurons.
 
Images:
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/images6/6-9l.jpg CPM (neuropathology-web.org)].<ref name=npw_ch6>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html]. Accessed on: 20 December 2011.</ref>
*[http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/spring09/html/virtual_microscopy_we/ CPM (dartmouth.edu)].


==Vascular malformations==
{{Main|Vascular malformations}}
Types:<ref name=pmid17076525>{{cite journal |author=Prayson RA, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part II |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1639–48 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
#Arteriovenous malformation.
#*Most important clinically - highest risk of bleeding.
#Varix.
#*One large (dilated) vein.
#Venous angioma.
#*Many small veins.
#Caverous malformation.
#*Vessels are back-to-back (no intervening parenchyma).


Also see: ''[[Sturge-Weber syndrome]]''.


=Cysts=
=Cysts=
Line 653: Line 928:
**... think of ovarian dermoid.
**... think of ovarian dermoid.
*Epidermoid cyst.
*Epidermoid cyst.
*Choriod cyst.
*Choroid plexus cyst.
*Neuroenteric cyst.
*Neuroenteric cyst.
**Foregut cyst with connection to dura.<ref>URL: [http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm]. Accessed on: 19 December 2011.</ref>
**Foregut cyst with connection to dura.<ref>URL: [http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm]. Accessed on: 19 December 2011.</ref>
Line 659: Line 934:
***Usually seen with vertebral anomalies.  
***Usually seen with vertebral anomalies.  
*Epithelial cyst.
*Epithelial cyst.
*Cyst with a mural nodule tumor of the brain.
**Commonly seen in: <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Raz | first1 = E. | last2 = Zagzag | first2 = D. | last3 = Saba | first3 = L. | last4 = Mannelli | first4 = L. | last5 = Di Paolo | first5 = PL. | last6 = D'Ambrosio | first6 = F. | last7 = Knopp | first7 = E. | title = Cyst with a mural nodule tumor of the brain. | journal = Cancer Imaging | volume = 12 | issue =  | pages = 237-44 | month = Aug | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1102/1470-7330.2012.0028 | PMID = 22935908 }}</ref>
**[[Hemangioblastoma]]
**[[Craniopharyngioma]]
**[[Ganglioglioma]]
*Others.
*Others.


Line 668: Line 948:


===Gross===
===Gross===
*Classically in the third ventricle.
*Fluid filled cyst - classically in the third ventricle.
 
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Human brain showning a colloid cyst in the third ventricle.jpg| Colloid cyst at autopsy. (Shaktawat ''et al.''<ref name=pmid16867192>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Shaktawat | first1 = SS. | last2 = Salman | first2 = WD. | last3 = Twaij | first3 = Z. | last4 = Al-Dawoud | first4 = A. | title = Unexpected death after headache due to a colloid cyst of the third ventricle. | journal = World J Surg Oncol | volume = 4 | issue =  | pages = 47 | month =  | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1186/1477-7819-4-47 | PMID = 16867192 }}</ref>)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F3.expansion.html Colloid cyst of third ventricle (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>


===Microscopic===
===Microscopic===
Line 674: Line 961:
*Simple epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells.
*Simple epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells.


Images:
====Images====
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colloid_Cyst_HE_40x.jpg Colloid cyst (WC)].
<gallery>
Image:Colloid_Cyst_HE_40x.jpg | Colloid cyst. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F4.expansion.html Colloid cyst (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F4.expansion.html Colloid cyst (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>


Line 684: Line 974:


===Gross===
===Gross===
*Yellow staining of the basal ganglia.<ref name=pmid10920171>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hansen | first1 = TW. | last2 = Hervieux | first2 = JF. | last3 = Orth | first3 = J. | last4 = Schmorl | first4 = CG. | last5 = Baumes | first5 = JB. | title = Pioneers in the scientific study of neonatal jaundice and kernicterus. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = E15 | month = Aug | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 10920171 }}</ref>
*Yellow staining:<ref name=npw>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter3/chapter3eBilirubinencephalopathy.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter3/chapter3eBilirubinencephalopathy.html]. Accessed on: 30 May 2012.</ref>
**Basal ganglia.<ref name=pmid10920171>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hansen | first1 = TW. | last2 = Hervieux | first2 = JF. | last3 = Orth | first3 = J. | last4 = Schmorl | first4 = CG. | last5 = Baumes | first5 = JB. | title = Pioneers in the scientific study of neonatal jaundice and kernicterus. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = E15 | month = Aug | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 10920171 }}</ref>
**Hippocampus.<ref name=pmid15091133>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Paksoy | first1 = Y. | last2 = Koç | first2 = H. | last3 = Genç | first3 = BO. | title = Bilateral mesial temporal sclerosis and kernicterus. | journal = J Comput Assist Tomogr | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 269-72 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 15091133 }}</ref>
**Subthalamic nucleus.


Note:
Note:
Line 691: Line 984:
Image:
Image:
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/neonatal-box/6275988844/ Kernicterus (flickr.com)].
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/neonatal-box/6275988844/ Kernicterus (flickr.com)].
===Microscopic===
Features - similar to [[HIE]]:<ref name=npw/>
*+/-Red neurons.
*+/-Gliosis.


==Joubert syndrome==
==Joubert syndrome==
Line 697: Line 995:
===Epidemiology===
===Epidemiology===
*Autosomal recessive - mutation in a number of genes including NPHP1, AHI1, and CEP290.<ref name=ninds_joubert/>
*Autosomal recessive - mutation in a number of genes including NPHP1, AHI1, and CEP290.<ref name=ninds_joubert/>
=Weird stuff=
==Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis==
*Abbreviated ''ADEM''.
===General===
*Thought to be autoimmune; often associated with/preceded by by viral illness.<ref name=pmid17438235>{{cite journal |author=Tenembaum S, Chitnis T, Ness J, Hahn JS |title=Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis |journal=Neurology |volume=68 |issue=16 Suppl 2 |pages=S23–36 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17438235 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000259404.51352.7f |url=}}</ref>
*May mimic [[multiple sclerosis]].
Treatment:
*Steroids.
*Plasmapheresis.
Diagnosis:
*Need to r/o infection (with lumbar puncture).
*No old plaques on imaging (MRI).
An acute form exists known as ''acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis''<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case102/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case102/dx.html]. Accessed on: 2 January 2012.</ref> (AKA ''acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis'').
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref>{{Ref PBoD8|1312}}</ref>
*Myelin loss with sparing of axons.
*Inflammation:
**Early: neutrophils.
**Late: mononuclear cells (lymphocytes, plasma cells).
*Lipid-laden macrophages.
DDx:
*[[Multiple sclerosis]].
**Age of the lesions differ.
*Acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (ANHE) - if one considers this a separate entity.
*Acute necrotizing encephalopathy.<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case619/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case619/dx.html]. Accessed on: 26 January 2012.</ref>
==Neuromyelitis optica==
*Abbreviated ''NMO''.
===General===
*Rare autoimmune disease - once considered a variant of [[multiple sclerosis]].
**Autoantibodies directed at aquaporin-4.<ref name=pmid22087205>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kim | first1 = W. | last2 = Kim | first2 = SH. | last3 = Kim | first3 = HJ. | title = New insights into neuromyelitis optica. | journal = J Clin Neurol | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 115-27 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.3988/jcn.2011.7.3.115 | PMID = 22087205 }}</ref>
Diagnosis:
*NMO-IgG.
Clinical - preferentially:
*Eye (optic neuritis).
*Spinal cord (myelitis).
===Microscopic===
Features:
*Inflammation - lymphocytes, macrophages.
*Reactive astrocytes.
Images:
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case637.html Neuromyelitis optica - several images (upmc.edu)].
===IHC===
*Mixed lymphocyte population with CD3 > CD20.
*Aquaporin-4 loss.
==Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy==
*Commonly abbreviated ''CADASIL''.
===General===
*Autosomal dominant disorder - as the name implies.<ref name=pmid19174371>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Tikka | first1 = S. | last2 = Mykkänen | first2 = K. | last3 = Ruchoux | first3 = MM. | last4 = Bergholm | first4 = R. | last5 = Junna | first5 = M. | last6 = Pöyhönen | first6 = M. | last7 = Yki-Järvinen | first7 = H. | last8 = Joutel | first8 = A. | last9 = Viitanen | first9 = M. | title = Congruence between NOTCH3 mutations and GOM in 131 CADASIL patients. | journal = Brain | volume = 132 | issue = Pt 4 | pages = 933-9 | month = Apr | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awn364 | PMID = 19174371 }}
</ref>
*Causes strokes in 40-50 year-old.
*Cerebral microbleeds - common.
**Associated with increased risk of [[intracerebral hemorrhage]].<ref name=pmid17135568>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = Kang | first2 = SY. | last3 = Kang | first3 = JH. | last4 = Park | first4 = JK. | title = Intracerebral hemorrhages in CADASIL. | journal = Neurology | volume = 67 | issue = 11 | pages = 2042-4 | month = Dec | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1212/01.wnl.0000246601.70918.06 | PMID = 17135568 }}</ref>
*Characteristic MRI findings - present in asymptomatic individuals with mutation.
*Increased risk of [[heart|myocardial infarction]].<ref name=pmid12861102>{{cite journal |author=Lesnik Oberstein SA, Jukema JW, Van Duinen SG, ''et al.'' |title=Myocardial infarction in cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=251–6 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12861102 |doi=10.1097/01.md.0000085054.63483.40 |url=}}</ref>
Note:
*There is also an autosomal recessive form - CARASIL.<ref name=pmid21215656>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fukutake | first1 = T. | title = Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL): from discovery to gene identification. | journal = J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 85-93 | month =  | year =  | doi = 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2010.11.008 | PMID = 21215656 }}</ref>
====Etiology====
*Mutation of ''Notch 3'' gene.<ref name=pmid15537516>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kalaria | first1 = RN. | last2 = Viitanen | first2 = M. | last3 = Kalimo | first3 = H. | last4 = Dichgans | first4 = M. | last5 = Tabira | first5 = T. | title = The pathogenesis of CADASIL: an update. | journal = J Neurol Sci | volume = 226 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 35-9 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1016/j.jns.2004.09.008 | PMID = 15537516 }}</ref>
**Diagnosis: proven ''Notch 3'' mutation.
===Microscopic===
Features:
*+/-Subcortical infarcts.
**Patches of (non-myelinated) tissue within the white matter deep to the cortex with abundant macrophages.
*Blood vessels typically have a basophilic granularity.<ref name=pmid17076524>{{cite journal |author=Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Prayson RA |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part I |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1630–8 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076524 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
====IHC====
*Notch 3: smooth muscle and pericytes punctate +ve.<ref name=pmid12861102/>
Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CADASIL_-_very_high_mag.jpg Notch 3 staining in CADASIL (WC)].
Notes:
*No cortical involvement -- this is unlike ''multiple sclerosis''.
DDx:
*[[Amyloidosis]].
*[[Binswanger's disease]] - multi-infarct dementia affecting subcortical white matter.
**Often diagnosed as ''Alzheimer's disease'' in the past.
====Skin biopsy diagnosis====
*Can be diagnosed on a skin biopsy.<ref name=pmid11755616 >{{cite journal |author=Joutel A, Favrole P, Labauge P, ''et al.'' |title=Skin biopsy immunostaining with a Notch3 monoclonal antibody for CADASIL diagnosis |journal=Lancet |volume=358 |issue=9298 |pages=2049–51 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11755616 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)07142-2 |url=}}</ref>
===Electron microscopy===
*Granular osmiophilic material (GOM).
==Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy==
*Abbreviated ''PML''.
===General===
*Caused by ''JC virus'' (a type of [[polyomavirus]]<ref name=pmid21499097>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Berger | first1 = JR. | title = The basis for modeling progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy pathogenesis. | journal = Curr Opin Neurol | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 262-7 | month = Jun | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0b013e328346d2a3 | PMID = 21499097 }}</ref>) in the context of immunodeficiency; usu. in the setting of [[HIV]] infection.<ref name=pmid12709870>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Berger | first1 = JR. | title = Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: explaining the high incidence and disproportionate frequency of the illness relative to other immunosuppressive conditions. | journal = J Neurovirol | volume = 9 Suppl 1 | issue =  | pages = 38-41 | month =  | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1080/13550280390195261 | PMID = 12709870 }}</ref>
**Approximately 5% of HIV patients develop PML.<ref name=pmid12709870/>
**Virus destroys oligodendrocytes -> demyelination results.<ref name=pmid21823157>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Mateen | first1 = FJ. | last2 = Muralidharan | first2 = R. | last3 = Carone | first3 = M. | last4 = van de Beek | first4 = D. | last5 = Harrison | first5 = DM. | last6 = Aksamit | first6 = AJ. | last7 = Gould | first7 = MS. | last8 = Clifford | first8 = DB. | last9 = Nath | first9 = A. | title = Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in transplant recipients. | journal = Ann Neurol | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 305-22 | month = Aug | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/ana.22408 | PMID = 21823157 }}
</ref>
*Suspected cases are biopsied - unlike other demyelinating diseases.<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/dx.html]. Accessed on: 15 January 2012.</ref>
===Gross===
*Multifocal - as the name suggests.
DDx:
*[[Multiple sclerosis]].
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>
*Perivascular inflammatory cells.
*Foamy histiocytes.
*Abnormal appearing glial cells:<ref name=uscf_pml>URL: [http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>
**Reactive astrocytes.
**Oligodendrocytes with nuclear enlargement and glassy magenta chromatin - '''key feature'''.
**Atypical mitoses - known as ''[[Creutzfeldt cell]]''.
Images:
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/micro.html PML - case 1 (upmc.edu)].
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html PML - case 1 (upmc.edu)].
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/images/fig03.jpg Crutzfeldt cell - case 2 (upmc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336.html]. Accessed on: 15 January 2012.</ref>
*[http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Figures/PMLHandE.jpg PML oligodendrocyte (ucsf.edu)].<ref name=uscf_pml>URL: [http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>
*[http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/data/Journals/NP/3923/RA4831F2.jpeg PML oligodendrocyte (psychiatryonline.org)].<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hurley | first1 = RA. | last2 = Ernst | first2 = T. | last3 = Khalili | first3 = K. | last4 = Del Valle | first4 = L. | last5 = Simone | first5 = IL. | last6 = Taber | first6 = KH. | title = Identification of HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. | journal = J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 1-6 | month =  | year = 2003 | doi =  | PMID = 12556565 }}</ref>
===IHC===
*SV40 +ve.<ref name=pmid15581180>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Muñoz-Mármol | first1 = AM. | last2 = Mola | first2 = G. | last3 = Fernández-Vasalo | first3 = A. | last4 = Vela | first4 = E. | last5 = Mate | first5 = JL. | last6 = Ariza | first6 = A. | title = JC virus early protein detection by immunohistochemistry in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a comparative study with in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 63 | issue = 11 | pages = 1124-30 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi =  | PMID = 15581180 }}</ref>


=See also=
=See also=

Latest revision as of 17:17, 25 March 2021

Gross image showing changes of a stroke. (WC/Marvin 101)

This article is an introduction to neuropathology. There are separate articles for brain tumours, the pituitary gland, the spine, the eye, muscle pathologies, neurohistology and neuroanatomy.

Neuropathology is the bane of many anatomical pathologists in teaching hospitals... 'cause they have to fill in for the neuropathologist when he or she is on vacation.

Neuroanatomy

Main article: Neuroanatomy

This is a large topic. It covered in a separate article, that also covers grossing.

Neuroradiology

Key factors to consider in evaluation:

  1. Location.
  2. Number of lesions - single versus multiple.
  3. Cystic versus solid lesion.
  4. Enhancement.

Lesion location

In neuroradiology and neuropathology, real estate is crucial. Lesion location can often narrow your differential.

Cortical lesions (gray matter):

Cortical-subcortical junction:

Subcortical lesions (white matter):

Deep gray matter lesions (e.g. basal ganglia):

Cerebellar lesions:

Intraventricular lesions:

Suprasellar (above the pituitary):

Number of lesions

If single lesion = think primary, neoplastic If multiple lesions = think metastatic, neoplastic or infectious NB: glioblastoma can be multifocal (and the foci can be quite far apart)

Cystic vs. solid lesions

Some tumours are classically cystic with a small solid component (so-called cyst with a mural nodule) -- e.g. pilocytic astrocytoma, ganglioglioma, hemangioblastoma

Enhancing vs. non-enhancing:

  • In adults, enhancing generally = high grade.
  • In pediatrics, it often depends on the pattern.

Two main patterns to be mindful of -- ring enhancing lesions, and cystic lesions with a mural nodule.

Ring enhancing lesions

In HIV/AIDS patients... mass on CT if infection:

Ring enhancing lesion (DDx) - mnemonic MAGICAL DR:[2]

Cyst with enhancing mural nodule

  • hemangioblastoma (#1 in adults)
  • pilocytic astrocytoma (#1 in peds)
  • pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
  • ganglioglioma

Grossing

This is covered in the neuroanatomy article.

Gross pathology

The gross usually useless for arriving at a definitive diagnosis.

Exceptions:[3]

Normal histology

Main article: Neurohistology

This is a big topic. It is covered in a separate article called neurohistology.

Histopathology

Neuronal changes

Anoxic neurons

  • AKA red neurons.

Features:

  • Intensely red cytoplasm.
  • Pyknosis = nuclear shrinkage + darker staining.
Images

  • Anoxic neurons (WC)

  • Neurons in an acute stroke. (WC)

www:

Central chromatolysis

Features:[6]

  • Central clearing.
    • Nucleus and Nissl substance are pushed to cell periphery.

DDx:

Images

  • Central chromatolysis - intermed. mag. (WC)

  • Central chromatolysis - NF stain - very high mag. (WC)

Axonal swellings

H&E:

  • Eosinophilic (light pink) - ground glass-like appearance.
  • Shape:
    • Round if sectioned perpendicular to axis of axon.
      • Bound by cell membrane.
      • Large ~ typically 2-4x RBC diameter.
    • Sausage-shaped if cut in along axis.

Images:

IHC
  • APP.

Image:

Glial changes

Astrocyte changes

Reactive astrocytes:

  • Approximately equally-spaced; distance between neighbouring astrocytes is ~2x (or more) the cell size.
  • Well-defined cell border.
  • Eosinophilic cytoplasm with many branching processes.
    • Classically described as "funnel-shaped" in benign astrocytes.[11]
  • Peripheral nucleus.

  • Reactive astrocytes - high mag. (WC)

Alzheimer type II astrocyte:[12]

  • Alzheimer type II astrocytes. (WC)

Creutzfeldt cell:[14]

  • Astrocyte that mimics a mitoses; has moderate (identifiable) cytoplasm.
  • Finding associated with demyelinating disease.
  • Image: Crutzfeldt cell (upmc.edu).[15]

Gemistocytic astrocytes:[16]

  • Distinct eosinophilic cytoplasm - with ground-glass appearance.

Tufted astrocytes:[17]

  • Cellular processes loaded with tau protein (as may be seen with tau IHC or Gallyas silver stain); Parisian-star-like appearance with special stain.
  • +/-Multinucleated.
  • A classic feature of progressive supranuclear palsy.

Other glial

Bergmann gliosis (in the cerebellum):[14]

  • Thin layer of cells (2-3 cells) with open nuclei that are larger than granular cell layer nuclei; seen with Purkinje cell loss.

  • Bergmann gliosis - intermed. mag. (WC)

  • Bergmann gliosis - high mag. (WC)

  • Bergmann gliosis due to compression by metastasis - intermed mag. (WC)

Image:

Reactive change vs. malignancy

Reactive changes vs. malignancy (mnemonic MIMICS):[18]

  • MIcrovesicular pattern.
  • Mitoses.
  • Irregular spacing.
  • Calcifications.
  • Satellitosis, perineuronal.
    • Large "crowds" of glial cells associated with nuclei.

Inflammatory

DDx:

Encephalitis

see also:

General

DDx:

  • Viral encephalitis (Neurotrophic viruses):[19]
    • Eteroviruses are the most common cause of aseptic meningitis.
      • Coxackie Virus.
      • Enteric cytopathic human orphan (ECHO) virus.
    • Human Herpesviruses (HSV1, HSV2, VZV, CMV, EBV, Roseola)
      • HSV encephalitis has high mortality without acyclovir treatment.
      • Childhood cerebellitis mainly associated with varicella.
      • VZV is the second most common viral meningitis after enterovirus.
    • Measles virus(worldwide more than 100.000 deaths annually).
    • Seasonal influenza A virus (highest patogenic potential: avian influenza H5N1).
    • Polio and Non-Polio Enterovirus (mostly children).
      • Although massive eradication: Polio still existent in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria.
    • Rabies virus
    • Tick-borne encephalitis virus (Europe, Siberia, Russian far-east).
    • West-Nile virus (US, Southern europe).
    • St. Louis encephalitis virus (US).
    • Japanese encephalitis virus (South, south-east asia, high disability rate).
    • La Crosse virus (esp. children, midwest & eastern US).
    • Borna disease virus (VSBV-1).
    • Equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, WEEV, CHIKV).
  • Paraneoplastic syndromes.
  • Autoimmune antibody-mediated limbic encephalitis (NMDAR).
  • Purulent bacterial encephalitis
  • Septic metastatic encephalitis
    • microabscesses, local astrogliosis, two or more granulocytic infiltrates without relation to vessel.[20]
  • Septic embolic encephalitis
    • Embolic endocarditis, Stroke-like lesions.[21]
  • Non-purulent bacterial encephalitis
Gross
  • Frontal and temporal lobe - most common for HSV encephalitis.[22]
Microscopic

Features:[23]

  • Perivascular inflammation.
  • Microglia.
  • +/-Neuronophagia.
    • Phagocytosis of neurons.[24]
  • +/-Viral cytopathic changes.
  • +/-Perineuronal inflammation.

Notes:

  • Hemorrhage[25] and necrosis - characteristic of HSV encephalitis.

Image:

IHC

IHC stains for:

  • Intraoperative appearance of a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)

  • Perivascular inflammation in a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)

  • Hemorrhage in HSV encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)

  • HSV encephalitis, higher magnification (WC/jensflorian)

  • Neonatal brain with migration disturbances due to CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)

  • Neuronal nuclear inclusions in a neonatal CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)

  • Rabies encephalitis (CDC.gov)

  • Negri bodies in Purkinje cells (CDC.gov)

Vasculitis

DDx Cerebral vasculitis / angiitis:

  • Beta-amyloid related angitis, HE (WC)

  • Beta-amyloid related angiitis, abeta IHC (WC)

  • Giant cell arteritis, HE (WC)

Architecture

Rosettes

  • Rosette = circular/flower-like arrangement of cells.[27]
  • Homer-Wright rosette = (circular) rosette with a small (~100 micrometers ???) meshwork of fibers (neuropil) at the centre.[27]
  • Pineocytomatous/neurocytic rosette = irregular rosette with a large meshwork of fibers (neuropil) at the centre.[27]
  • Radial (cartwheel) profiles = neoplastic cells anchoring to stromal vessels, shorter processes than in ependymal pseudorosettes

  • Homer-Wright rosettes (WC).

  • Neurocytic rosettes (WC).

  • Perivascular pseudorosette (WC).

  • Multilayered rosettes (WC).

  • Ependymoblastous rosettes (WC/Marvin101).

  • True ependymal rosettes and pseudorosettes (WC).

  • Radial (cartwheel) profiles (WC).

Other important histological features

  • Rosenthal fibres = worm-like or corkscrew-like (brightly) eosinophilic bodies; 10-40 micrometers.
    • Key feature: variable thickness; helps separate from RBCs.
    • Well-seen on trichrome stains.

  • Rosenthal fibres. (WP)

  • Rosenthal fibres - smear (WC/AFIP)

  • Eosinophilic granular bodies = related to Rosenthal fibres; round cytoplasmic hyaline droplets in astrocytes.[30]

  • Eosinophilic granular bodies in pilocytic astrocytoma smear (WC/AFIP)

  • Eosinophilic granular body in a pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma (WC/jensflorian)

  • Pseudopalisading - picket fence-like alignment of cells; long axis of cells perpendicular to interface with other structures/cells.
    • Pseudopalisading of tumour cells (around necrotic regions) is seen in glioblastoma.

  • Pseudopalisading necrosis in a glioblastoma (WC/jensflorian)

Note:

Inclusion bodies

  • Negri bodies.
    • Cytoplasmic inclusions; classically in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn.
    • Rabies.

  • Negri bodies. (WC/CDC)

  • Owl eye inclusions.
    • Basiopilic neuronal inclusions in enlarged cells, typically seen in CMV encephalitis

  • Owl eye inclusions

  • Lewy bodies.
    • Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion - composed mostly of alpha-synuclein.[32]

  • Lewy body. (WC)

Table of inclusions

Feature Appearance Associated disease Comment Image
Grumose bodies
AKA granular bodies 		granular and eosinophilic ~50 micrometers neurodegenerative disease, neuroaxonal dystrophies, aging ?Comment ?Image
Cowdry type 1
AKA Cowdry type A 		eosinophilic & round + halo herpes simplex virus can be confused with
Lewy body, Marinesco body 		?Image
Lewy body round cytoplasmic eosinophilic
body +/- pale halo 		Parkinson disease, dementia with Lewy bodies morphology dependent on
location in brain; +ve for alpha-synuclein,
alpha-B crystallin, ubiquitin
Lewy Koerperchen.JPG
, [1]
Lafora body round myoclonic epilepsy look like corpora amylacea; location: dentate nucleus, liver, skeletal muscle, sweat glands ?Image
Lipofuscin yellow & granular aging olive, dendate ?Image
Negri body small eosinophic bodies rabies found in hippocampal neurons and Purkinje cells
Rabies encephalitis Negri bodies PHIL 3377 lores.jpg
Hirano body concentric calcification/rod-shaped bright eosinophilic; overlap edge of neuron Alzheimer disease, Pick disease[33] actin crystals, may look like capillaries; location: CA1 of hippocampus [2][34]
Neurofibrillary tangles flame-shaped cytoplasmic thingy
~30 micrometers 		aging, Alzheimer's disease seen with silver stain Schematic[34], [3][35]
Granulovacuolar degeneration cytoplasmic vacuoles 4-5 micrometers ageing, Alzheimer's disease,
Pick's disease 		main found in Ammon horn[33] [4][35]
Pick bodies round, homogenous, intracytoplasmic, ~10 micrometers Pick's disease pyramidal neurons, dentate
granule cells (hippocampus); +ve for tau, tubulin, ubiquitin 		[5]
Bunina body size of Nissl granules, eosinophilic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) EM: membrane-bound bodies; ubiquitin +ve [6]

Image collection: Inclusion bodies (photobucket.com).

Immunohistochemistry

Main article: Immunohistochemistry

General

  • S-100.
    • Sensitive... but non-specific, e.g. also stains melanoma.

Glial

  • GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) - should stain perikaryon.

Glial tumours

Standard work-up:

  • GFAP.
  • MAP2C. [36]
  • Ki-67 (MIB-1).

Useful additional markers:

  • IDH1(R132H) in Astrocytic/Oligodendroglial tumors. [37]
  • ATRX in mixed gliomas. [38]
  • EMA in Ependymal tumors. [39]
  • OLIG-2 usually -ve in Ependymomas. [40][41]

Neuronal

  • Synaptophysin.
  • Chromogranin.

Carcinoma vs. glial tumours

  • AE1/AE3 often +ve in glial tumours (e.g. astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas); CAM5.2 is usu. -ve in glial tumours.[42]

Others

  • APP (amyloid precursor protein) - detects axonal swellings.
  • NF (neurofilament) - detects axonal swellings.

Brain tumours

Main article: Neuropathology tumours

Tumours are a big part of neuropathology. The most common brain tumour (in adults) is a metastasis. The most common primary tumours originating in the brain (in adults) are gliomas. More than 50% of these are classified as glioblastoma which has a horrible prognosis.

Non-tumour

Vascular disorders

Cerebral hemorrhage

See: Intracranial hematoma for intracranial bleeds

Includes discussion of:

Duret hematoma

  • AKA Duret hemorrhage.

General

  • Bleed in the upper brainstem (midbrain and pons).
    • Thought to be due to transtentorial herniation secondary to supratentorial mass effect (e.g. supratentorial tumour, intracranial hemorrhage).[43]
  • Often fatal.[44]

Gross

  • Extravasated blood in midbrain and pons - usu. ventral (anterior) and paramedian (adjacent to the midline).[43]

Image:

Microscopic

Features:

  • RBC extravasation.
  • +/-Hemosiderin-laden macrophages.
  • +/-Ischemic neurons.

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy

General

  • Abbreviated CAA.
  • Disease of the old.
  • Strong association with lobar haemorrhage (bleeds of the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).[46]

Etiology:

  • Amyloid deposition in the basal lamina of smooth muscle (in the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).

Gross

  • Bleeds typically superficial (cortex and subcortical white matter) and in the frontal lobe or parietal lobe.[47]

Microscopic

Features:

  • Amorphous, acellular eosinophilic material within walls of small arteries.
    • This is a high power diagnosis with congo red staining.

Notes:

  • Amyloidosis is seen in all individuals with Alzheimer's disease; the amount of amyloid is what differs -- in CAA it is lots and lots.
  • The white matter is typically spared by CAA.[48]

Images

  • CAA - congo red - very high mag. (WC)

  • CAA - congo red - low mag. (WC)

  • CAA - beta-amyloid - high mag. (WC)

Stains

IHC

  • Abeta-amyloid (AKA beta-amyloid).

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy associated with inflammation (I-CAA)

  • Cognitive decline.
  • Microbleedings in MRI.
  • Responsive to steroids.
  • Abeta deposits in vessels.
  • Perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate (but no vasculitis!).
  • Giant cells may be present.

Vascular malformations

Main article: Vascular malformations

Types:[49]

Also see: Sturge-Weber syndrome.

Atherosclerosis

Main article: Vascular_disease#Atherosclerosis
  • Intracranial atherosclerosis most common at circle of Willis.
  • Macroscopic yellow discoloration.
  • Luminal stenosis and eccentric intimal thickening.

  • Plaque of the carotid bifurcation (Ed Uthman).

Other large arterial diseases

Microangiopathy

  • Defined as Small vessel disease (<300µm in transverse section).
  • Includes atherosclerosis and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.

Other causes:

Main article: Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy

  • Abbreviated HIE.
Main article: Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy
    • Hypoxia: reduction in oxygen supply or utilization.
    • Ischemia: reduction in blood supply.

Cerebrovascular accident

  • Abbreviated CVA.
  • AKA stroke.
Main article: Cerebrovascular accident
  • Stroke includes:
    • Infarction (ischemia in defined vascular distribution persisting for at least 24hrs).
    • Intracrebral hemorrhage (focal blood accumulation in the brain parenchyma).
    • Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH).
    • Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT).


Alcohol & CNS

Clinical

  • Wernicke's encephalopathy
    • Mnemonic WACO:
      • Wernicke's.
      • Ataxia.
      • Confusion, confabulation -- Korsakoff.
      • Ocular Sx (CN IV palsy).
    • Cause: thiamine deficiency.

Pathology

Features:[50]

  • Morel's laminar sclerosis = spongy degeneration and gliosis of the cerebral cortex[51] usu. prominent in the third layer of the cortex (outer pyramidal layer) and especially in the lateral-frontal cortex.[52]
  • Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM).[53]
    • Just what it sound like - myelin loss in the central pons.
    • Classically associated with rapid correction of hyponatremia.[54]
  • Mammillary body shrinkage.[55]
  • Anterior cerebellar vermis atrophy; weak finding - as also age-related.[56]
    • Vermis atrophy is also seen in schizophrenia.[57]

Marchiafava-Bignami Disease

  • Rare.
  • Demyelination of the corpus callosum.[52]

Wernicke's encephalopathy

General:

  • Due to thiamine deficiency.

Features:[58]

  • Neurons of mammillary bodies preserved - key.
  • Loss of myelin.
  • Hemorrhage.
  • Edema.
  • Reactive blood vessels.

Note:

  • The thalamus and inferior olives show neuronal loss.[58]

Common non-specific findings

Meningitis

General

  • Definition: inflammation of the meninges (pia mater, arachnoid membranes, dura mater).

Classic clinical presentation:

  • Neck stiffness.
  • Fever.
  • +/-Headache.
  • +/-Decreased level of consciousness.

CSF findings:

Type Glucose Protein Cells Cytopathology
Bacterial, acute low high neutrophils
Purulent CSF.jpg
Cytophathology
Viral normal slight elevation lymphocytes Cytophathology


Etiology

Bacterial meningitis - most probably cause by age:[59]

Age Organism
Neonate Escherichia coli, Group B Streptococcus
Infants, children Streptococcus pneumoniae
Adolescents, young adults Neisseria meningitidis
Elderly Streptococcus pneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes

Gross

Features:

  • +/-Clouded appearance of the meninges.
  • +/-Pus.
  • +/-Petechiae.
  • +/-Cerebral edema.

Image

  • Streptococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr.)

  • Hemophilus influenza Meningitis. (WC/CDC)

  • Pneumococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Yale Rosen)

  • Bacterial Meningitis MRI (WC/MBq)

Microscopic

Features:

Main DDx:

Image

  • Bacterial meningitis. (WC/Marvin101)

Cerebral abscess

General

  • May mimic malignancy clinically.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Sheets of neutrophils surrounded by fibrosing brain.
    • Fibrosing brain: pale (lighter pink than normal brain tissue), dense.

Images:

Neurodegenerative diseases

Main article: Neurodegenerative diseases

This is a hueueuge topic. It is covered in its own article and includes a general discussion of dementia.

Malformation of cortical development(MCD)

Lissencephaly

  • Greek: ‘lissos': smooth and ‘enkephalos': brain.
  • Absent (agyria) or decreased (pachygyria) convolutions.
  • Cortical thickening
  • Smooth cerebral surface
  • Subtypes with different layering: 2-layered, 3-layered, and 4-layered forms.
  • Heterotopic neurons in a pattern suggestive of laminar organization.
  • 14 LIS mutations account for 90% of all cases.[61]

Polymicrogyria

  • Abnormal cortical lamination.
  • Abnormally small and partly fused gyri.
  • Can be unilateral, bilateral and symmetrical.
  • Intellectual disability.
  • Sometimes severe encephalopathy.
  • Pharmacoresistant epilepsy
  • Cortical lamination can be unlayered or four-layered.
    • Unlayered: Unorganized radial distribution of neurons.
    • Four-layered: Molecular layer, outer neuronal layer, nerve fiber layer, and inner neuronal layer.
  • 1q trisomy in unilateral cases.[62]

Epilepsy

Main article: Epilepsy

Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)

  • Localized malformations of the cortex.
  • Frequently associated with epilepsy in children.
  • Includes cortical dyslamination, cytoarchitectural changes and white matter abnormalities.
  • Current consensus: ILAE classification scheme 2011 [63](based on previous classification by Palmini 2004):


  • Type I FCD (focal)
    • Ia: Abnormal radial cortical lamination.
    • Ib: Abnormal tangential cortical lamination.
    • Ic: Abnormal radial and tangential cortical lamination.


  • Type II FCD (focal)
    • IIa: Presence of dysmorphic neurons.
    • IIb: Presence of dysmorphic neurons and balloon cells.


  • Type III FCD (associated with other lesion)
    • IIIa: FCD associated with hippocampal sclerosis.
    • IIIb: FCD adjacent to a brain tumor.
    • IIIc: FCD adjacent to vascular malformation.
    • IIIc: FCD associated with previous injury (trauma, inflammation...).


  • Dysmorphic neurons in FCD (HE)

  • Heterotopic neurons (NeuN)

Hamartia

  • Small collection of ectopic glioneuronal cells.
    • Morpholology resembling oligodendroglial-like cells. [64]
  • Mostly amygdala, less common in hippocampus or temporal lobe.
  • Can coexist with focal cortical dysplasia.

Demyelination

Multiple sclerosis

  • Abbreviated MS.
Main article: Multiple sclerosis

Osmotic demyelination syndrome

Main article: Osmotic demyelination syndrome
  • Previously known as central pontine myelinolysis (abbreviated CPM).

Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

  • Abbreviated ADEM.
Main article: Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

Neuromyelitis optica

  • Abbreviated NMO.

General:

  • Rare autoimmune disease - once considered a variant of multiple sclerosis.
    • Autoantibodies directed at aquaporin-4.[65]

Diagnosis:

  • NMO-IgG.

Clinical - preferentially:

  • Eye (optic neuritis).
  • Spinal cord (myelitis).

Microscopic:

  • Inflammation - lymphocytes, macrophages.
  • Reactive astrocytes.

Images:

IHC:

  • Mixed lymphocyte population with CD3 > CD20.
  • Aquaporin-4 loss.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

  • Abbreviated PML.
Main article: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy


Cysts

General

  • All are "benign", but some may be fatal due to spatial constraints.

List of cysts

  • Colloid cyst.
    • Columnar epithelium.
  • Arachnoid cyst - considered precursor of meningioma.
  • Dermoid cyst.
    • Skin + adnexal structures.
    • ... think of ovarian dermoid.
  • Epidermoid cyst.
  • Choroid plexus cyst.
  • Neuroenteric cyst.
    • Foregut cyst with connection to dura.[66]
      • Gastrointestinal tract epithelium.
      • Usually seen with vertebral anomalies.
  • Epithelial cyst.
  • Cyst with a mural nodule tumor of the brain.
  • Others.

Colloid cyst

General

Classic presentation:[68]

Gross

  • Fluid filled cyst - classically in the third ventricle.

Images

  • Colloid cyst at autopsy. (Shaktawat et al.[70])

www:

Microscopic

Features:[71]

  • Simple epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells.

Images

  • Colloid cyst. (WC)

www:

Paediatric pathology

Kernicterus

General

  • Due to hyperbilirubinemia.[72]

Gross

  • Yellow staining:[73]
    • Basal ganglia.[74]
    • Hippocampus.[75]
    • Subthalamic nucleus.

Note:

  • May not be specific.[72]

Image:

Microscopic

Features - similar to HIE:[73]

  • +/-Red neurons.
  • +/-Gliosis.

Joubert syndrome

  • Malformation of the cerebellar vermis.[76]

Epidemiology

  • Autosomal recessive - mutation in a number of genes including NPHP1, AHI1, and CEP290.[76]

See also

References

  1. ↑ MUN. Feb 3, 2009.
  2. ↑ Yeung, J.C.; Leonard, Blair J. N. (2005). The Toronto Notes 2005 - Review for the MCCQE and Comprehensive Medical Reference (2005 ed.). The Toronto Notes Inc. for Medical Students Inc.. pp. NS7. ISBN 978-0968592854.
  3. ↑ R. Kiehl. 8 November 2010.
  4. ↑ URL: http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html. Accessed on: 10 December 2014.
  5. ↑ URL: http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm and http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.
  6. ↑ URL: http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1aNeurons.html. Accessed on: 22 December 2010.
  7. ↑ Holland GR (1996). "Experimental trigeminal nerve injury". Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 7 (3): 237–58. PMID 8909880.
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